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An Introduction to Chinese Grammar 汉语语法入门

句子成分 Sentence Elements

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Sentences are the smallest units in language that can independently express at idea. Words and phrases in sentences can be divided into sentence elements based on their use. There are six kinds of sentence elements in Chinese:

1. 主语 Subject
2. 谓语 Predicate
3. 宾语 Object
4. 定语 Attributive
5. 状语 Adverbial adjunct
6. 补语 Complement

主语 The Subject

In Chinese the most common form of composing a sentence is using subject and predicate sentence elements. Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, duplicated measure words, and phrases can all act as subjects. For example,

1. 老师讲话。(The teacher is speaking) “老师”是主语也是名词。(老师 is the subject and is a noun.)
2. 她很闹腾。(She is very disruptive.) “她”是主语也是代词。(她 is the subject and is a pronoun.)
3. 走路很健康。(Walking is healthy) “走路”是主语也是动词。(走路 is the subject and is also a verb.)
4. 悲观不好。(Pessimism is bad) “悲观”是主语也是形容词。(悲观 is the subject and is an adjective.)
5. 七很运气。(Seven is lucky.) “七”是主语也是数词。(七 is the subject and is also a numeral.)
6. 个个都很聪明。(They are all very clever.) “个个”是主语也是重叠数词。(个个 is the subject and is a duplicated measure word.)
7. 我自己去。(I will go myself.) “我自己”是主语也是词组。(我自己 is the subject and is a phrase.)

The subject is usually at the start of the sentence, expressing the target of a statement.

谓语 The Predicate

The predicate makes a statement about the subject. The predicate is usually placed after the subject. All kinds of notional words and most types of phrases can act as the subject.

1. 我自己去。(I will go myself.) 动词“去”是谓语。 (The verb 去 is the predicate.)
2. 天亮了。 (It is light already.) 形容词“亮”是谓语。(The adjectitve 亮 is the predicate.)
3. 今天晴天。(The weather is clear today.) 名词“晴天”是谓语。(The noun 晴天 is the predicate.)
4. 她二十。(She is twenty years old.)数词“二十”是谓语。(The number twenty is the predicate.)
5. 现在的状态怎么样？(What is the status now?)代词“怎么样”是谓语。(The pronoun 怎么样 is the predicate.)
6. 一杯茶五块。(A cup of tea is five yuan.) 词组“五块”是谓语。(The phrase 五块 is the predicate.)

The predicate can be followed by objects. For example,

1. 他坐车。(He is riding in a car.)一个宾语 (One object)
2. 他送我机票。(He delivered the tickets to me.) 两个宾语 (Two objects)

When an adjective acts as the predicate the adverb 很 is usually used. Otherwise, a comparison is implied.

1. 这件毛衣很大。(This sweater is big.)
2. 这件毛衣大（那件合适）This sweater is big (that one is the right size)

宾语 The Object

An object is appended to a verb acting as the subject to indicate the target of an action, the place arrived at by an action, the tools used in an action, or the result of an action. For example,

1. 咱们看电影。(We are watching a movie.)“电影”是宾语 (电影 is the object.)
2. 他们去北京。(The are going to Beijing.) “北京”是宾语。(北京 is the object.)

The object is usually placed after a verb serving as a predicate. The object is most often a noun or pronoun. However, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, numerals, and phrases can all act as the object. For example,

1. 我们明天看电影。(We will see a movie tomorrow.)名词“电影”是宾语 (The noun 电影 is the object)
2. 你得答应我。(You must promise me.) 代词“我”是宾语。(The pronoun 我 is the object)
3. 他欢锻炼。(He likes to excercize.) 动词“锻炼”是宾语。(The verb 动词 is the object)
4. 注意安全 (Be safe)
5. 购物中心有超市和各种商店。(The shopping center has a supermarket and all kinds of shops.) 词组“超市和各种商店”是宾语。 (The phrase 超市和各种商店 is the object.)

A transitive verb can either carry an object or go without one. When a transitive verb carries one object it is called a single object. For example,

1. 我们抄写。 (We are transcribing.) 及物动词“抄写”不带宾语。(The transitive verb 抄写, to transcribe, does not carry an object.)
2. 我们抄写经。 (We are transcribing a sutra.) 及物动词“抄写”带宾语“经”，是单宾语。 (The transitive verb 抄写 carries the object 经, which is a single object.

Some transitive verbs can take two object and this is called a double object. The first object is called an indirect object and the second is called a direct object. For example,

1. 老师教我们汉语。 (The teacher is teaching us Chinese.) 代词“我们”是间接宾语，名词“汉语”是直接宾语。(The pronoun 我们 is an indirect object and the noun 汉语 Chinese is a direct object.)
2. 我明天送他邮件。 (I will send him an email tomorrow.) 代词“他”是间接宾语，名词“邮件”是直接宾语。 (The pronoun 他 is an indirect object and the noun 邮件 is a direct object.

For the purpose of emphasis, comparison, or simplification the object may be placed in front of a verb acting as a predicate. This is called a fronted object. For example,

1. 我这些数学题都做完了。(I have finished all of these math problems.) 宾语“些数学题”在主语“我”的后边和谓语“做”的前边。(The object 些数学题 is after the subject 我 and before the predicate 做.)
2. 这些数学题我都做完了。 (I have finished all of these math problems.) 宾语“些数学题”在主语“我”和谓语“做”的前边。(The object 些数学题 is before both the subject 我 and the predicate 做.)

状语 Adverbial Adjuncts

Adverbial adjuncts are words or phrases that decorate or limit the predicate.

1. 状语在动词谓语的前边 (An adverbial adjunct located before a verb predicate)
   1. 我今天去了银行。 (I went to the bank today.)
   2. 我只有一间行李。 (I only have one piece of luggage.)
2. 状语在形容词谓语的前边 (An adverbial adjunct located before an adjective predicate)
   1. 孩子很高兴 (The child is very happy.)

The adverbial adjunct must be placed before the word modified. All kinds of words and phrases may act as an adverbial adjunct. The structural particle 地 is often placed after an adverbial adjunct. The basic purpose of adverbs is to act as adverbial adjuncts. For example,

1. 他非常高兴。 (He is very happy.) 副词状语“非常”修饰谓语“高兴”。 (The adverb 非常 acting as the adverbial adjunct modifies the predicate 高兴.)
2. 他经常锻炼身体。 (He frequently exercises.) 副词状语“经常”修饰动词“锻炼”。 (The adverb 经常 acting as an adverbial adjunct modifies the verb 锻炼.)

The main purpose of prepositional phrase is also to act as adverbial adjuncts. For example,

1. 咱们从东边爬山。 (We will climb the mountain from the east side.) 介词结构“从东边”修饰动词“爬”。 (The prepositional phrase 从东边 modifies the verb 爬.)

Nouns, auxiliary verbs, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, coordinative phrases, subject-predicate phrases, endocentric phrases, numeral-measure word phrases, phrases of locality, and set phrases can all act as adverbial adjuncts.

When verbs, dissyllabic adjectives, coordinative phrases, subject-predicate phrases, duplicated numeral-measure word phrases, and set phrases act as the adverbial adjunct ordinarily the particle 地 must be used. For example,

1. 请注意地看。 (Please look carefully). 动词“注意”充当状语。 (The verb 注意 acts as the adverbial adjunct.)
2. 我们仔细地看了。 (We looked carefully.) 双音形容词“仔细”充当状语。 (The dissyllabic adjective 仔细 acts at the adverbial adjunct.)

When adverbs, prepositional phrases, nouns expressing time or place, monosyllabic adjectives, and pronouns act as an adverbial adjunct, in general, 地 should not be used. For example,

1. 他很喜欢冰淇淋。 (He really likes ice cream.) 副词“很”充当状语。 (Adverb 很 acts as the adverbial addjunct.)
2. 东边来了个喇嘛。 (A lama came from the East.) 表示处所的名词“东边”充当状语。 (The noun of locality 东边 acts as the adverbial adjunct.

补语 Complements

A complement is a word or phrase placed after the predicate that adds information about the action experienced including time, probably, direction, outcome, degree, or quantity. For example,

1. 我说了两次。 (I said that two times.) 补语“两次”放在动词谓语“说”的后边。 (The complement 两次 is located after the verb predicate 说.)
2. 他高一点。 (He is a little taller.) 补语“一点”放在形容词谓语“高”的后边。 (The complement 一点 is placed after the adjective predicate 高.)

Usually, an adjective, verb, number, or complementary phrase acts as the complement. The structural particle 的 is often placed between the modified word and the complement. There are five types of complements:

1. 结果补语 Complement of Result

   A complement of result is a sentence element placed after a verb predicate to indicate the result of the verb. For example,

   1. 家里的人都看见了。 (I saw all the people in my family.) 结果补语“见”表示动词谓语“看”的结果。 (The complement of result 见 indicates the result of the verb predicate 看.)
   2. 我没听懂。 (I do not understand.) 结果补语“懂”表示动词谓语“听”的结果。 (The complement of result 懂 indicates the result of the verb predicate 听.)

   Verbs, adjectives, and prepositional phrases can act as complements of result. For example:

   1. 我写完了论文。 (I finished writing the thesis.) 动词“完”充当结果补语。 (The verb 完 acts as the complement of result.)
   2. 我准备好了。 (I am properly prepared.) 形容词“好”充当结果补语。 (The adjectvie 好 acts as the complement of result.)
   3. 火车开往北京。 (The train is going to Beijing.) 介词结构“往北京”充当结果补语。 (The prepositional phrase 往北京 acts as the complement of result.)

   The negative form of a complement of result uses 没 in front of the verb. No word or phrase should be placed in between the verb and the complment, otherwise, the meaning will change. For example:

   1. 我没看见。 (I did not see it.) 不能说“我看不见”因为意思是我不能看见。 (You cannot say, 我看不见 because the meaning is that I cannot see it.)
   2. 我没听懂。 (I did not understand.) 不能说“我听不懂”因为意思是我不懂。 (You cannot say 我听不懂 because the meaning is that I do not understand.)
2. 程度补语 Complement of Degree

   Complements of degree are placed after the predicate to indicate the degree of the action. For example:

   1. 他写得好。 (He writes well.) 形容词“好”充当程度补语，说明动词、谓语“写”的情态。 (The adjective 好 acts as the complement of degree expressing the manner that the verb predicate 写 was performed.)
   2. 他跑得很快。 (He runs very quickly.) 偏正词组“很快”充当程度补语，说明动词、谓语“跑”的情态。 (The endocentric phrase 很快 acts as the complement of degree describing the manner of the verb predicate 跑.)

   The structural particle 得 must be used between the modified word and the complement of degree. The negative is formed by placing the adverb 不 after the structural particle 得. For example,

   1. 他写得不好。 (He does not write well.)
   2. 他跑得不快。 (He does not run quickly.)

   Adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, endocentric phrases, coordinative phrases, complementary word phrases, verb-object phrases, and subject-predicate phrases can all act as complements of degree. For example,

   1. 他长得高。 (He has grown up tall.) 形容词“高”充当程度补语。 (The adjective 高 acts as the complement of degree.)
   2. 她唱得怎么样？ (How is her singing?) 代词“怎么样”充当程度补语。 (The pronoun 怎么样 acts as the complement of degree.)
   3. 他好极了。 (He is very good.) 副词“极了”充当程度补语。 (The adverb 极了 acts as the complement of degree.)
   4. 他学得太认真了。 (He studies so earnestly.) 偏正词组“太认真”充当程度补语。 (The endocentric phrase 太认真 acts as the complement of degree.)

   If a predicate takes both an object and a complement of degree at the same time then the verb should be repeated with the complement of degree being placed after the second instance of the verb. For example,

   1. 他回答问题回答得很准确。 (He answered the question very accurately.) 动词谓语“回答”是重复的。 (The verb predicate 回答 is repeated.)
   2. 他打球打得很远。 (He hit the ball a really long way.) 动词谓语“打”是重复的。 (The verb predicate 打 is repeated.)

   The adverb 极了 is a special case of a complement of degree that does not require the particle 得. For example,

   1. 天气热极了。 (The weather is really hot.) 不需要结构助词“得”。 (The structural particle 得 is not needed.)
   2. 天气热得很。 (The weather is really hot.) 需要结构助词“得”。 (The structural particle 得 is needed.)
3. 数量补语 Complement of quantity

   A complement of quantity is a word or phrase that is placed after the predicate to indicate frequency, duration, or height, length, etc. A complement of quantity that expresses the frequency of an action is called a complement of frequency. A complement of quantity that expresses the duration of an action is called a duration of frequency. A complement of quantity that expresses the height, length, etc of an action is called a complement of nominal measure. For example,

   1. 去两趟 (to go two times) 动量补语“两趟”表示动作“去”发生了几次。 (The complement of frequency 两趟 expresses how many times the action 去 occurred.
   2. 谈三小时 (to talk for three hours) 时量补语“三小时”表示动作“谈”的时段。 (The complement of duration 三小时 describes the duration of the action 谈.)
   3. 大一岁 (one year older) 名量补语“一岁”表示形容词“大”的长度。 (The complement of nominal measure 一岁 describes the duration of the adjective 大.)

   Most often a numeral-measure word phrase acts as the complement of quantity. Predicates that have a complement of quantity can also take an object. For example,

   1. 这本书我看了三遍。 (I have read this book three times.) 宾语“这本书”在谓语“看”的前边。 (The subject 这本书 is in front of the predicate 看.
   2. 他学中文学了一年。 (He studied Chinese for one year.) 宾语“中文”在动词谓语“学”后边，谓语是重复的，时量补语“一年”放在重复的动词后边。 (The object 中文 occurs after the verb predicate 学, which is repeated. The complement of duration is placed after the repeated verb.
   3. 他学了一年中文。 (He studied Chinese for one year.) 也可以不重复动词。 (It is also acceptable not to repeat the verb.)
   4. 我昨天去了两趟商店。 (I went to the shop twice yesterday.) 带动量补语“两趟”的动词谓语“去”后边，名词宾语“商店”要放在动量补语后边。 (The noun object 商店 is placed after the complement of frequency 两趟 of the verb 去.)
   5. 我碰到了他一次。 (I ran into him once.) 带动量补语“一次”的动词谓语“碰到”后边，代词宾语“他”要放在动量补语前边。 (The pronoun object 他 is placed after the complement of frequency 一次 of the verb 碰.)
4. 趋向补语 Complement of Direction

   A complement of direction is placed after a predicate verb to express the direction of an action. There are two types of complement of direction: simple and compound.

   1. Simple complements of direction: 来 and 去
   2. Compound complements of direction: 上来、上去、下来、下去、进来、进去、出来、出去、回来、回去、过来、过去、起来

   The complements of direction 来 and 去 express the direction of the action relative to the speaker. For example,

   1. 我拿来了。 (I took it.) “来”是简单趋向补语，“拿”是谓语动词。 来 is a simple complement of direction and 拿 is the predicate verb.
   2. 他跳下去了。 (He jumped down.) “下去”是复合趋向补语，“跳”时谓语动词。 下去 is a compount complement of direction and 跳 is the verb predicate.

   An object referring to a place or position should be placed between the predicate verb and the complement of direction. An object referring to a person or thing can either be placed before or after a simple complement of direction. For example,

   1. 他回办公室去了。 (He went back to the office.) 表示处所的宾语“办公室”放在谓语动词“回”和趋向补语“去”之间。 (The object 办公室, expressing a location, is placed in between the predicate verb 回 and the complement of direction 去.)
   2. 他带来了一个朋友。 (He brought a friend along.) 表示人的宾语“朋友”放在简单趋向补语“来”前边。 (The object 朋友, referring to people, is placed after the simple complement of direction 来.)
5. 可能补语 Complement of Potentiality

   A potential complement is a word or phrase, placed after a predicate verb, that expresses whether an action can achieve a certain state.

   谓语动词（predicate verb） + “得”或“不” 　+ 可能补语（potential complement）

   Verbs and adjectives can act as potential complements. For example,

   1. 你打得开吗？ (Can you open it?) 动词“开”充当可能补语。 (The verb 开 acts as the potential complement.)
   2. 我打不开了。 (I can't open it.) 否定式 (Negative form)
   3. 你讲的清楚。 (You explained that clearly.) 形容词“清楚”充当可能补语。 (The adjective 清楚 acts as the potential complement.)

   The verbs 动、了、and 下” are frequently used as potential complements. For example,

   1. 我走不动。 (I can't move.) 可能补语“动”表示力量。 (The potential complement 动 expresses strength.
   2. 这座体育场坐得下九万人。 (This stadium can seat ninety thousand people.) 可能补语“下”表示足够空间或容量。 (The potential complement 下 expresses sufficient space or capacity.)
   3. 我今天来得了。 (I can come today.) 可能补语“了”表示可能有能力进行动作。 (The potential complement 了 expresses the probability to be able to carry out an action.)

定语 The Attributive

An attributive is a word or phrase that decorates or modifies another term. The modified word may be either the subject or object. For example,

1. 我朋友要去中国。 (My friend will go to China.) 代词“我”是定语，是在主语“朋友”前边。(The pronoun 我 is the attributive and is placed before the subject 朋友.)
2. 那本书是我的。 (That book is mine). 定语“那本”在主语前边。 (The attributive 那本 is before the subject.)
3. 他买了两本书。 (He bought two books.) 数量词组“两本”是定语，是在宾语前边。 (The numeral-measure word phrase 两本 is the attributive and is before the object.)
4. 那是昨天的报纸。 (That is yesterday's newspaper.) 名词“昨天”是定语，是在宾语前边。 (The noun 昨天 is the attributive and is before the object.)

An attributive must be placed in front of the modified word. Any kind of notional word or phrase can act as an attributive. The structural particle 的 is often placed after an attributive. In the examples above there are instances of a noun, a pronouns, and a numeral-measure word phrase acting as an attributive. Below are examples of other kinds of words acting as the attributive.

1. 我们楼房有很多空房子。 (There are many empty apartments in our building.) 形容词“空”充当定语(The adjective 空 acts as the attributive.)
2. 我们的楼房有八层。 (Our building has eight floors.) 数词“八”充当定语。 (The numeral 八 acts as the attributive.)
3. 他是积极而可靠的职工。 (He is a positive and reliable employee.) 联合词组“积极而可靠”充当定语。 (The coordinative phrase 积极而可靠 acts as the attributive.)

Some attributives must be followed by the structural particle 的, some attributives cannot be followed by 的, and some may optionally be followed by 的.

Don't use 的 in the following circumstances:

1. 定语是名词，表示人或者事物的性质 (When the attributive is a noun and describes a quality of a person or thing)
   1. 制定节日 (A designated holiday)
   2. 销售经理 (A sales manager)
2. 定语是名词，在固定组合里 (the attributive is a noun in a set combination)
   1. 北京大学 (Peking University)
   2. 首都机场 (Beijing Capital Airport)
3. 定语是代词：表示亲属关系、集体单位；是“这、那”在数词、量词前边；是“什么、多少”在名词前边 (When the attributive is a pronoun: and it expresses a family relationship or an organizational unit; it is 这 or 那 and appears in front of a numeral or measure word; or it is 什么 or 多少 and appears in front of a noun)
   1. 我这 or 那 (My mother)
   2. 我单位 (My employer)
   3. 这个杯子 (This cup)
   4. 那三个人 (Those three people)
   5. 多少钱 (How much money?)
   6. 什么意思 (What do you mean?)
4. 定语时形容词：单音词；用双音词的固定词组 (When the attributive is an adjective: monosyllables and disyllables in set phrases in
   1. 高山 (tall mountain)
   2. 紫禁城 (The Forbidden City)
5. 重叠量词 (Duplicated measure words)
   1. 门门课程 (Every class)
6. 定语是动词，表示人或事物的性质 (when the attributive is a verb expressing a characteristic of a person or thing)
   1. 开幕典礼 (Opening ceremony)
7. 定语是数量词组 (The attributive is a measure word phrase.)
   1. 一条狗 (A dog)

The structural particle 的 must be used in the situations below:

1. 定语是名词表示领属关系、时间、处所 (The attributive is a noun expression a possessive relation, time, or place
   1. 学生的书包 (The student's school bag)
   2. 今年的计划 (This year's plan)
   3. 前边的山 (The mountain ahead)
2. 定语是代词表示领属关系、处所、方式、样式等 (The attributive is a pronoun expressing a possessive relation, place, manner, or type)
   1. 你的书包 (Your backpack)
   2. 这里的风景 (The scenery here)
   3. 那样的方法 (That method)
   4. 这样的动物 (This kind of animal)
3. 定语是形容词，强调修饰性的单音词、修饰单音词的双音词、重叠格式 (Adjectives acting as attributives when emphasizing decoration of the modified word, dissyllables decorating monosyllables, duplicated forms)
   1. 深入的了解 (a deep understanding)
   2. 幸福的人 (a happy person)
   3. 高高的山 (A very tall mountain)
4. 定语是动词 (Verbs acting as attributives)
   1. 辩论的话题 (The subject debated)
5. 定语是联合词组 (Coordinative phrases acting as attributives)
   1. 北京和上海的天气 (The weather in Beijing and Shanghai)
6. 定语是主谓词组 (Subject-predicate phrases acting as attributives)
   1. 专家用的办法 (A method used by experts)
7. 定语是动宾词组 (Verb-object phrases acting as attributives)
   1. 看天坛的旅游团 (The tour groups visiting the Temple of Heaven)
8. 定语是偏正词组 (Endocentric phrases acting as attributives)
   1. 很快的赛车 (A really fast race car)
9. 补充词组充当定语 (Complementary word phrases acting as attributives)
   1. 长一些的路 (A slightly longer road)
10. 方位词组、同位词组、固定词组、介词结构充当定语 (Phrases of locality, appositive phrases, set phrases, and prepositional phrase acting as an attributive)
    1. 我自己的房子 (My own house)

的 can be optionally used in the following situations:

1. 双音代词充当定语，修饰单音集体单位 (Dissyllabic pronouns acting as an attributive decorating monosyllabic collective units)
   1. 咱们（的）队 (Our team)
2. 双音形容词充当定语修饰双音词 (Dissyllabic adjectives acting as an attributive modifying another dissyllabic word)
   1. 幸福的日子 (Joyful days)
3. 借用名词的数量词组，表示数量多 (Measure word phrases that borrow a noun to express the idea of a large number)
   1. 一层一层（的）山 (Layer upon layer of mountains
4. 偏正词组“很多”、“不少” The endocentric phrases 很多 and 不少
   1. 很多（的）矛盾 (Many contradictions)
   2. 不少（的）钱 (A considerable amount of money)

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Glossary and Other Vocabulary