Notes on Literary Chinese
Nouns and Noun Phrases
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Nouns and Nominal Phrases
In a topic-comment sentence there are two types of comments: nominal and verbal. A nominal sentence has a nominal (noun-like) phrase as its comment. Usually this means that a nominal phrase forms the predicate of the sentence. In contrast, a verbal sentence has a verbal (verb-like) phrase as its comment.
Nominal Phrases
A nominal sentence has the form A B 也, which is a statement that A is a type of B. For example,
生而知之者，上也
Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men.
from The Analects of Confucius 论语 (see below). The topic of this sentence is 生而知之者.
In nominal sentences in classical Chinese, depending on the period and author, there is often no copula, like 'is' in Enlgish or 是 in modern Chinese. The copula is nearly entirely missing in early classical Chinese texts and more commonly encountered in later texts. In later texts 也 as a final particle also becomes less common.
The negative form for this type of sentence is usually A 非 B 也. For example,
非敢后也
I did not have the courage to lag behind
also from the Analects (see below). The unstated but implied subject in this example is I.
Text Analects 16.9
孔子曰：「
生而知之者，上也；
学而知之者，次也；
困而学之，又其次也。
困而不学，民斯为下矣！
」
Confucius said,
'Those who are born with the possession of knowledge are the highest class of men.
Those who learn, and so, readily, get possession of knowledge, are the next.
Those who are have difficulty and yet overcome that in learning, are another class next to these.
As to those who are dull and stupid and yet do not learn are the lowest of the people.'
The Analects are the sayings of Confucius recorded by his disciples (c. 479 BCE—221 BCE) and is a model of an early classical Chinese writing.
Text Analects 6.13
子曰、
孟之反不伐、
奔而殿、将入门、策其马、
曰、非敢后也、马不进也。
The Master said,
'Meng Zhifan does not boast of his merit.
Being in the rear on an occasion of flight, when they were about to enter the gate,
he whipped up his horse,
saying, "It is not that I dare to be last. My horse would not advance."'
Questions
In very early classical texts, such as Zuozhuan 左传 the interrogative particle 乎 was added after 也 to form questions. Later, the combination 乎也 was replaced by 与 or 邪. For example,
夫非尽人之子与
Are we not all somebody's son?
from Mencius 孟子 and
其正色邪
Is this its true color?
from Zhuang Zi 庄子.
The final particle 夫 means is it not? and is used in a similar way to the modern particle 吧. For example,
然而至此极者，命也夫
Thus I have arrived at this eventuality. Is it not fate?
from Zhuang Zi 庄子.
Pronouns and Particles
A pronoun can be substituted for a noun when using a nominal predicate. Commonly encountered pronouns are 此, 斯, and 是. For example,
此文王之勇也
This was King Wen's bravery.
是亦走也
This is also running away.
both from Mencius. In high classical Chinese 是 was a pronoun rather than a verb as it is in modern Chinese. It aquired this function in the Han Dynasty.
The pronoun 皆 is used when the subject is plural. For example,
五蕴皆空
all five skandhas are empty
from the Heart Sutra.
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